The complement receptor C3AR constitutes a novel therapeutic target in NPM1-mutated AML.

Mutated nucleophosmin 1 (NPM1) is the most common genetic alteration in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), found in ∼30% of cases. Although mutations in this gene are considered favorable according to current risk stratification guidelines, a large fraction of patients will experience relapse, demonstrating the urgent need for new treatment options. Therefore, we aimed to identify cell surface proteins specifically expressed on NPM1-mutated AML cells, allowing for potential targeting with antibody-based therapies. Herein, we report on an arrayed flow cytometry-based screen directed to 362 cell surface markers. In comparing the cell surface expression on NPM1-mutated AML cells with primitive (CD34+ CD38-) normal bone marrow cells, we identified the complement receptor C3AR as being specifically expressed in NPM1-mutated AML. By flow cytometry and single-cell RNA sequencing, we further show that normal hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells lack detectable C3AR gene and protein expression, making it particularly suitable as a target for antibody therapy. We also demonstrate that C3AR in combination with GPR56 distinguishes the leukemic stem cells (LSCs) in NPM1-mutated AML from the normal hematopoietic stem cells, defining the LSC population, as shown by transplantation into immunodeficient mice. Mechanistically, the stimulation of C3AR-expressing cells with C3a, the ligand of C3AR, leads to the activation of ERK1/2 and increased survival of AML cells, suggesting that this is an important signaling axis in this subtype of AML. Finally, we show that antibodies directed against C3AR efficiently elicit natural killer cell-mediated killing of primary AML cells ex vivo, highlighting C3AR as a candidate therapeutic target in NPM1-mutated AML.

Clinical and genomic characterization of patients diagnosed with the provisional entity acute myeloid leukemia with BCR-ABL1, a Swedish population-based study.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) with t(9;22)(q34;q11), also known as AML with BCR-ABL1, is a rare, provisional entity in the WHO 2016 classification and is considered a high-risk disease according to the European LeukemiaNet 2017 risk stratification. We here present a retrospective, population-based study of this disease entity from the Swedish Acute Leukemia Registry. By strict clinical inclusion criteria we aimed to identify genetic markers further distinguishing AML with t(9;22) as a separate entity. Twenty-five patients were identified and next-generation sequencing using a 54-gene panel was performed in 21 cases. Interestingly, no mutations were found in NPM1, FLT3, or DNMT3A, three frequently mutated genes in AML. Instead, RUNX1 was the most commonly mutated gene, with aberrations present in 38% of the cases compared to around 10% in de novo AML. Additional mutations were identified in genes involved in RNA splicing (SRSF2, SF3B1) and chromatin regulation (ASXL1, STAG2, BCOR, BCORL1). Less frequently, mutations were found in IDH2, NRAS, TET2, and TP53. The mutational landscape exhibited a similar pattern as recently described in patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) in myeloid blast crisis (BC). Despite the concomitant presence of BCR-ABL1 and RUNX1 mutations in our cohort, both features of high-risk AML, the RUNX1-mutated cases showed a superior overall survival compared to RUNX1 wildtype cases. Our results suggest that the molecular characteristics of AML with t(9;22)/BCR-ABL1 and CML in myeloid BC are similar and do not support a distinction of the two disease entities based on their underlying molecular alterations.

Clonal competition within complex evolutionary hierarchies shapes AML over time.

Clonal heterogeneity and evolution has major implications for disease progression and relapse in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). To model clonal dynamics in vivo, we serially transplanted 23 AML cases to immunodeficient mice and followed clonal composition for up to 15 months by whole-exome sequencing of 84 xenografts across two generations. We demonstrate vast changes in clonality that both progress and reverse over time, and define five patterns of clonal dynamics: Monoclonal, Stable, Loss, Expansion and Burst. We also show that subclonal expansion in vivo correlates with a more adverse prognosis. Furthermore, clonal expansion enabled detection of very rare clones with AML driver mutations that were undetectable by sequencing at diagnosis, demonstrating that the vast majority of AML cases harbor multiple clones already at diagnosis. Finally, the rise and fall of related clones enabled deconstruction of the complex evolutionary hierarchies of the clones that compete to shape AML over time.

A high-content cytokine screen identifies myostatin propeptide as a positive regulator of primitive chronic myeloid leukemia cells.

Aberrantly expressed cytokines in the bone marrow (BM) niche are increasingly recognized as critical mediators of survival and expansion of leukemic stem cells. To identify regulators of primitive chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells, we performed a high-content cytokine screen using primary CD34+ CD38low chronic phase CML cells. Out of the 313 unique human cytokines evaluated, 11 were found to expand cell numbers ≥2-fold in a 7-day culture. Focusing on novel positive regulators of primitive CML cells, the myostatin antagonist myostatin propeptide gave the largest increase in cell expansion and was chosen for further studies. Herein, we demonstrate that myostatin propeptide expands primitive CML and normal BM cells, as shown by increased colony-forming capacity. For primary CML samples, retention of CD34-expression was also seen after culture. Furthermore, we show expression of MSTN by CML mesenchymal stromal cells, and that myostatin propeptide has a direct and instant effect on CML cells, independent of myostatin, by demonstrating binding of myostatin propeptide to the cell surface and increased phosphorylation of STAT5 and SMAD2/3. In summary, we identify myostatin propeptide as a novel positive regulator of primitive CML cells and corresponding normal hematopoietic cells.

Genetic profiling of a chondroblastoma-like osteosarcoma/malignant phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor of bone reveals a homozygous deletion of CDKN2A, intragenic deletion of DMD, and a targetable FN1-FGFR1 gene fusion.

Conventional osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignancy of bone. This group of neoplasms is subclassified according to specific histological features, but hitherto there has been no correlation between subtype, treatment, and prognosis. By in-depth genetic analyses of a chondroblastoma-like osteosarcoma, we detect a genetic profile that is distinct from those previously reported in benign and malignant bone tumors. The overall genomic copy number profile was less complex than that typically associated with conventional osteosarcoma, and there was no activating point mutation in any of H3F3A, H3F3B, IDH1, IDH2, BRAF, or GNAS. Instead, we found a homozygous CDKN2A deletion, a DMD microdeletion and an FN1-FGFR1 gene fusion. The latter alteration has been described in phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor. This tumor type shares some morphological features with chondroblastoma-like osteosarcoma and we cannot rule out that the present case actually represents an FN1-FGFR1 positive malignant phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor of bone without osteomalacia.

Mutation, methylation, and gene expression profiles in dup(1q)-positive pediatric B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

High-throughput sequencing was applied to investigate the mutation/methylation patterns on 1q and gene expression profiles in pediatric B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP ALL) with/without (w/wo) dup(1q). Sequencing of the breakpoint regions and all exons on 1q in seven dup(1q)-positive cases revealed non-synonymous somatic single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in BLZF1, FMN2, KCNT2, LCE1C, NES, and PARP1. Deep sequencing of these in a validation cohort w (n = 17)/wo (n = 94) dup(1q) revealed similar SNV frequencies in the two groups (47% vs. 35%; P = 0.42). Only 0.6% of the 36,259 CpGs on 1q were differentially methylated between cases w (n = 14)/wo (n = 13) dup(1q). RNA sequencing of high hyperdiploid (HeH) and t(1;19)(q23;p13)-positive cases w (n = 14)/wo (n = 52) dup(1q) identified 252 and 424 differentially expressed genes, respectively; only seven overlapped. Of the overexpressed genes in the HeH and t(1;19) groups, 23 and 31%, respectively, mapped to 1q; 60-80% of these encode nucleic acid/protein binding factors or proteins with catalytic activity. We conclude that the pathogenetically important consequence of dup(1q) in BCP ALL is a gene-dosage effect, with the deregulated genes differing between genetic subtypes, but involving similar molecular functions, biological processes, and protein classes.

CD36 defines primitive chronic myeloid leukemia cells less responsive to imatinib but vulnerable to antibody-based therapeutic targeting.

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are highly effective for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), but very few patients are cured. The major drawbacks regarding TKIs are their low efficacy in eradicating the leukemic stem cells responsible for disease maintenance and relapse upon drug cessation. Herein, we performed ribonucleic acid sequencing of flow-sorted primitive (CD34+CD38low) and progenitor (CD34+ CD38+) chronic phase CML cells, and identified transcriptional upregulation of 32 cell surface molecules relative to corresponding normal bone marrow cells. Focusing on novel markers with increased expression on primitive CML cells, we confirmed upregulation of the scavenger receptor CD36 and the leptin receptor by flow cytometry. We also delineate a subpopulation of primitive CML cells expressing CD36 that is less sensitive to imatinib treatment. Using CD36 targeting antibodies, we show that the CD36 positive cells can be targeted and killed by antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. In summary, CD36 defines a subpopulation of primitive CML cells with decreased imatinib sensitivity that can be effectively targeted and killed using an anti-CD36 antibody.

Transgenic expression of human cytokines in immunodeficient mice does not facilitate myeloid expansion of BCR-ABL1 transduced human cord blood cells.

Several attempts have been made to model chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) in a xenograft setting but expansion of human myeloid cells in immunodeficient mice has proven difficult to achieve. Lack of cross-reacting cytokines in the microenvironment of the mice has been proposed as a potential reason. In this study we have used NOD/SCID IL2-receptor gamma deficient mice expressing human SCF, IL-3 and GM-CSF (NSGS mice), that should be superior in supporting human, and particularly, myeloid cell engraftment, to expand BCR-ABL1 expressing human cells in order to model CML. NSGS mice transplanted with BCR-ABL1 expressing cells became anemic and had to be sacrificed due to illness, however, this was not accompanied by an expansion of human myeloid cells but rather we observed a massive expansion of human T-cells and macrophages/histiocytes. Importantly, control human cells without BCR-ABL1 expression elicited a similar reaction, although with a slight delay of disease induction, suggesting that while BCR-ABL1 contributes to the inflammatory reaction, the presence of normal human hematopoietic cells is detrimental for NSGS mice.

Primary cells in BCR/FGFR1-positive 8p11 myeloproliferative syndrome are sensitive to dovitinib, ponatinib, and dasatinib.

OBJECTIVES: Translocations involving the fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) gene are associated with the 8p11 myeloproliferative syndrome (EMS), a rare neoplasm that following a usually short chronic phase progresses into acute myeloid or lymphoid leukemia. The treatment commonly involves chemotherapy and, if possible, allogeneic stem cell transplantation which is the only therapeutic option for long-term survival. Given the aggressive course of EMS, we here evaluated tyrosine kinase inhibitors as treatment options to delay disease progression. METHODS: We described a new case of EMS and used chromosome analyses, PCR, and sequencing to investigate the underlying genetic aberrations. The sensitivity to several tyrosine kinase inhibitors was tested in vitro on the EMS cell line KG1 and on primary cells from the newly diagnosed EMS patient. RESULTS: A translocation involving chromosomes 8 and 22 was detected, and a BCR/FGFR1 fusion gene was confirmed and characterized by sequencing. KG1 cells and primary EMS cells displayed distinct sensitivity to dovitinib, ponatinib, and dasatinib as compared to normal bone marrow control cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors may be beneficial for patients with EMS during the search for a suitable stem cell donor and for those not eligible for transplantation.

IL1RAP antibodies block IL-1-induced expansion of candidate CML stem cells and mediate cell killing in xenograft models.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is currently treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors, but these do not effectively eliminate the CML stem cells. As a consequence, CML stem cells persist and cause relapse in most patients upon drug discontinuation. Furthermore, no effective therapy exists for the advanced stages of the disease. Interleukin-1 receptor accessory protein (IL1RAP; IL1R3) is a coreceptor of interleukin-1 receptor type 1 and has been found upregulated on CML stem cells. Here, we show that primitive (CD34+CD38-) CML cells, in contrast to corresponding normal cells, express a functional interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor complex and respond with NF-κB activation and marked proliferation in response to IL-1. IL1RAP antibodies that inhibit IL-1 signaling could block these effects. In vivo administration of IL1RAP antibodies in mice transplanted with chronic and blast phase CML cells resulted in therapeutic effects mediated by murine effector cells. These results provide novel insights into the role of IL1RAP in CML and a strong rationale for the development of an IL1RAP antibody therapy to target residual CML stem cells.

Identification of ETV6-RUNX1-like and DUX4-rearranged subtypes in paediatric B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Fusion genes are potent driver mutations in cancer. In this study, we delineate the fusion gene landscape in a consecutive series of 195 paediatric B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (BCP ALL). Using RNA sequencing, we find in-frame fusion genes in 127 (65%) cases, including 27 novel fusions. We describe a subtype characterized by recurrent IGH-DUX4 or ERG-DUX4 fusions, representing 4% of cases, leading to overexpression of DUX4 and frequently co-occurring with intragenic ERG deletions. Furthermore, we identify a subtype characterized by an ETV6-RUNX1-like gene-expression profile and coexisting ETV6 and IKZF1 alterations. Thus, this study provides a detailed overview of fusion genes in paediatric BCP ALL and adds new pathogenetic insights, which may improve risk stratification and provide therapeutic options for this disease.

Antibodies targeting human IL1RAP (IL1R3) show therapeutic effects in xenograft models of acute myeloid leukemia.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is associated with a poor survival rate, and there is an urgent need for novel and more efficient therapies, ideally targeting AML stem cells that are essential for maintaining the disease. The interleukin 1 receptor accessory protein (IL1RAP; IL1R3) is expressed on candidate leukemic stem cells in the majority of AML patients, but not on normal hematopoietic stem cells. We show here that monoclonal antibodies targeting IL1RAP have strong antileukemic effects in xenograft models of human AML. We demonstrate that effector-cell-mediated killing is essential for the observed therapeutic effects and that natural killer cells constitute a critical human effector cell type. Because IL-1 signaling is important for the growth of AML cells, we generated an IL1RAP-targeting antibody capable of blocking IL-1 signaling and show that this antibody suppresses the proliferation of primary human AML cells. Hence, IL1RAP can be efficiently targeted with an anti-IL1RAP antibody capable of both achieving antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and blocking of IL-1 signaling as modes of action. Collectively, these results provide important evidence in support of IL1RAP as a target for antibody-based treatment of AML.

The genomic landscape of high hyperdiploid childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

High hyperdiploid (51-67 chromosomes) acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is one of the most common childhood malignancies, comprising 30% of all pediatric B cell-precursor ALL. Its characteristic genetic feature is the nonrandom gain of chromosomes X, 4, 6, 10, 14, 17, 18 and 21, with individual trisomies or tetrasomies being seen in over 75% of cases, but the pathogenesis remains poorly understood. We performed whole-genome sequencing (WGS) (n = 16) and/or whole-exome sequencing (WES) (n = 39) of diagnostic and remission samples from 51 cases of high hyperdiploid ALL to further define the genomic landscape of this malignancy. The majority of cases showed involvement of the RTK-RAS pathway and of histone modifiers. No recurrent fusion gene-forming rearrangement was found, and an analysis of mutations on trisomic chromosomes indicated that the chromosomal gains were early events, strengthening the notion that the high hyperdiploid pattern is the main driver event in this common pediatric malignancy.

Intratumoral genome diversity parallels progression and predicts outcome in pediatric cancer.

Genetic differences among neoplastic cells within the same tumour have been proposed to drive cancer progression and treatment failure. Whether data on intratumoral diversity can be used to predict clinical outcome remains unclear. We here address this issue by quantifying genetic intratumoral diversity in a set of chemotherapy-treated childhood tumours. By analysis of multiple tumour samples from seven patients we demonstrate intratumoral diversity in all patients analysed after chemotherapy, typically presenting as multiple clones within a single millimetre-sized tumour sample (microdiversity). We show that microdiversity often acts as the foundation for further genome evolution in metastases. In addition, we find that microdiversity predicts poor cancer-specific survival (60%; P=0.009), independent of other risk factors, in a cohort of 44 patients with chemotherapy-treated childhood kidney cancer. Survival was 100% for patients lacking microdiversity. Thus, intratumoral genetic diversity is common in childhood cancers after chemotherapy and may be an important factor behind treatment failure.

Activation of human telomerase reverse transcriptase through gene fusion in clear cell sarcoma of the kidney.

Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney (CCSK) is a rare tumor type affecting infants and young children. Most CCSKs display few genomic aberrations, and no general underlying mechanism for tumor initiation has yet been identified, although a YWHAE-NUTM2B/NUTM2E fusion gene has been observed in a minority of cases. We performed RNA-sequencing of 22 CCSKs to investigate the presence of additional fusion transcripts. The presence of the YWHAE-NUTM2B/NUTM2E fusion was confirmed in two cases. In addition, a novel IRX2-TERT fusion transcript was identified in one case. SNP-array analyses revealed the underlying event to be an interstitial deletion in the short arm of chromosome 5 (5p15.33). TERT was dramatically upregulated under the influence of the IRX2 promoter. In line with TERT expression being driven by active IRX2 regulatory elements, we found a high expression of IRX2 in CCSKs irrespective of fusion gene status. IRX2 was also expressed in human fetal kidney - the presumed tissue of origin for CCSK. We conclude that in addition to promoter mutations and epigenetic events, TERT can also be activated in tumors via formation of fusion transcripts.

Selective killing of candidate AML stem cells by antibody targeting of IL1RAP.

IL1RAP, a co-receptor for interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-33 receptors, was previously found to be highly upregulated on candidate chronic myeloid leukemia stem cells, allowing for leukemia-selective killing using IL1RAP-targeting antibodies. We analyzed IL1RAP expression in a consecutive series of 29 patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and, based on the level of expression in mononuclear cells (MNCs), we divided the samples into 3 groups: IL1RAP low (n = 6), IL1RAP intermediate (n = 11), and IL1RAP high (n = 12). Within the CD34+CD38- population, the intermediate and high groups expressed higher levels of IL1RAP than did corresponding normal cells. With the aim to target AML stem cells, an anti-IL1RAP monoclonal antibody was generated followed by isotype switching for improved antibody-dependent, cell-mediated cytotoxicity activity. Using this antibody, we achieved selective killing of AML MNC, CD34+CD38+, and CD34+CD38- cells. Our findings demonstrate that IL1RAP is a promising new therapeutic target in AML.

Smad4 binds Hoxa9 in the cytoplasm and protects primitive hematopoietic cells against nuclear activation by Hoxa9 and leukemia transformation.

We studied leukemic stem cells (LSCs) in a Smad4(-/-) mouse model of acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) induced either by the HOXA9 gene or by the fusion oncogene NUP98-HOXA9. Although Hoxa9-Smad4 complexes accumulate in the cytoplasm of normal hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells (HSPCs) transduced with these oncogenes, there is no cytoplasmic stabilization of HOXA9 in Smad4(-/-) HSPCs, and as a consequence increased levels of Hoxa9 is observed in the nucleus leading to increased immortalization in vitro. Loss of Smad4 accelerates the development of leukemia in vivo because of an increase in transformation of HSPCs. Therefore, the cytoplasmic binding of Hoxa9 by Smad4 is a mechanism to protect Hoxa9-induced transformation of normal HSPCs. Because Smad4 is a potent tumor suppressor involved in growth control, we developed a strategy to modify the subcellular distribution of Smad4. We successfully disrupted the interaction between Hoxa9 and Smad4 to activate the TGF-ß pathway and apoptosis, leading to a loss of LSCs. Together, these findings reveal a major role for Smad4 in the negative regulation of leukemia initiation and maintenance induced by HOXA9/NUP98-HOXA9 and provide strong evidence that antagonizing Smad4 stabilization by these oncoproteins might be a promising novel therapeutic approach in leukemia.